Feminist literary criticism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Feminist literary criticism is
literary criticism informed by
feminist theory, or by the politics of
feminism more broadly. Its history has been broad and varied, from classic works of nineteenth-century women authors such as
George Eliot and
Margaret Fuller to cutting-edge theoretical work in
women's studies and
gender studies by "
third-wave" authors. In the most general and simple terms, feminist literary criticism before the 1970s—in the
first and
second waves
of feminism—was concerned with the politics of women's authorship and
the representation of women's condition within literature.
Since the development of more complex conceptions of gender and subjectivity and
third-wave feminism, feminist literary criticism has taken a variety of new routes, namely in the tradition of the
Frankfurt School's
critical theory. It has considered gender in the terms of
Freudian and
Lacanian psychoanalysis, as part of the
deconstruction of existing relations of power, and as a concrete political investment.
[1] It has been closely associated with the birth and growth of
queer studies.
The more traditionally central feminist concern with the representation
and politics of women's lives has continued to play an active role in
criticism.
Lisa Tuttle
has defined feminist theory as asking "new questions of old texts." She
cites the goals of feminist criticism as: (1) To develop and uncover a
female tradition of writing, (2) to interpret symbolism of women's
writing so that it will not be lost or ignored by the male point of
view, (3) to rediscover old texts, (4) to analyze women writers and
their writings from a female perspective, (5) to resist sexism in
literature, and (6) to increase awareness of the sexual politics of
language and style.
[2]
Feminist literary critics
Prominent feminist literary critics include
Isobel Armstrong,
Nancy Armstrong,
Barbara Bowen,
Jennifer DeVere Brody, Laura Brown,
Margaret Anne Doody,
Eva Figes,
Sandra Gilbert and
Susan Gubar, Annette Kolodny,
Anne McClintock, Anne K. Mellor,
Nancy K. Miller,
Toril Moi, Felicity Nussbaum,
Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick,
Hortense Spillers,
Gayatri Spivak, Irene Tayler, Marina Warner.
Feminist theory
Feminist theory is the extension of
feminism into theoretical or
philosophical discourse. It aims to understand the nature of
gender inequality. It examines women's
social roles, experience, and feminist politics in a variety of fields, such as
anthropology and
sociology,
communication,
psychoanalysis,
economics,
literary,
education, and
philosophy.
While generally providing a critique of
social relations, much of feminist theory also focuses on analyzing
gender inequality and the promotion of
women's rights,
interests, and issues. Feminist researchers embrace two key tenets: (1)
their research should focus on the condition of women in society, and
(2) their research must be grounded in the assumption that women
generally experience subordination. Thus, feminist research rejects
Weber's value-free orientation in favour of being overtly
political-doing research in pursuit of gender equality.
Themes explored in feminism include
discrimination,
objectification (especially
sexual objectification),
oppression,
patriarchy,
stereotyping,
art historyand
contemporary artnd
aesthetics.
History of Feminist theory
Feminist theories first emerged as early as 1792 (– 1920s) in publications such as “The Changing Woman”
] “Ain’t I a Woman”,
“Speech after Arrest for Illegal Voting”,
[and so on. “The Changing Woman” is a Navajo Myth that gave credit to a woman who, in the end, populated the world.
In 1851,
Sojourner Truth
addressed women’s rights issues through her publication, “Ain’t I a
Woman.” Sojourner Truth addressed the issue of women having limited
rights due to men's flawed perception of women. Truth argued that if a
woman of color can perform tasks that were supposedly limited to men,
then any woman of any color could perform those same tasks. After her
arrest for illegally voting,
Susan B. Anthony
gave a speech within court in which she addressed the issues of
language within the constitution documented in her publication, “Speech
after Arrest for Illegal voting” in 1872. Anthony questioned the
authoritative principles of the constitution and its male gendered
language. She raised the question of why women are accountable to be
punished under law but they cannot use the law for their own protection
(women could not vote, own property, nor themselves in marriage). She
also critiqued the constitution for its male gendered language and
questioned why women should have to abide by laws that do not specify
women. Although there were not any feminist terminologies based on their
arguments, all of these women founded a lexicon of debates that
contributed to modern feminist theory. For example, Sojourner Truth
raised the issue of intersectionality, while Susan B. Anthony raised the
issue of the language debate.
Nancy Cott makes a distinction between
modern feminism and its antecedents, particularly the
struggle for suffrage. In the
United States
she places the turning point in the decades before and after women
obtained the vote in 1920 (1910–1930). She argues that the prior
woman movement was primarily about woman as a
universal
entity, whereas over this 20 year period it transformed itself into one
primarily concerned with social differentiation, attentive to
individuality and diversity. New issues dealt more with woman's condition as a
social construct,
gender identity,
and relationships within and between genders. Politically this
represented a shift from an ideological alignment comfortable with the
right, to one more radically associated with the left.
[15]
Susan Kingsley Kent says that Freudian patriarchy was responsible for the diminished profile of feminism in the inter-war years,
[16] others such as
Juliet Mitchell consider this to be overly simplistic since
Freudian theory is not wholly incompatible with feminism.
[17] Some feminist scholarship shifted away from the need to establish the origins of
family, and towards analyzing the process of
patriarchy.
[18] In the immediate postwar period,
Simone de Beauvoir stood in opposition to an image of "the woman in the home". De Beauvoir provided an
existentialist dimension to feminism with the publication of
Le Deuxième Sexe (
The Second Sex) in 1949.
[19]
As the title implies, the starting point is the implicit inferiority of
women, and the first question de Beauvoir asks is "what is a woman"?.
Woman she realizes is always perceived of as the "other", "
she is defined and differentiated with reference to man and not he with reference to her". In this book and her essay, "
Woman: Myth & Reality", de Beauvoir anticipates
Betty Friedan in seeking to demythologise the male concept of woman. "
A
myth invented by men to confine women to their oppressed`state. For
women it is not a question of asserting themselves as women, but of
becoming full-scale human beings." "One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman", or as
Toril Moi
puts it "a woman defines herself through the way she lives her embodied
situation in the world, or in other words, through the way in which she
makes something of what the world makes of her". Therefore, woman must
regain subject, to escape her defined role as "other", as a
Cartesian point of departure.
In her examination of myth, she appears as one who does not accept any
special privileges for women. Ironically, feminist philosophers have had
to extract de Beauvoir herself from out of the shadow of
Jean-Paul Sartre to fully appreciate her
While more philosopher and novelist than activist, she did sign one of the
Mouvement de Libération des Femmes manifestos.
The resurgence of feminist activism in the late 1960s was accompanied
by an emerging literature of what might be considered female associated
issues, such as concerns for the earth and spirituality, and
environmentalism. This in turn created an atmosphere conducive to reigniting the study of and debate on matricentricity, as a rejection of
determinism, such as
Adrienne Rich and
Marilyn French[24] while for
socialist feminists like
Evelyn Reed,
[25] patriarchy held the properties of capitalism. Feminist psychologists, such as
Jean Baker Miller,
sought to bring a feminist analysis to previous psychological theories,
proving that "there was nothing wrong with women, but rather with the
way modern culture viewed them."
[26]
Elaine Showalter
describes the development of Feminist theory as having a number of
phases. The first she calls "feminist critique" - where the feminist
reader examines the ideologies behind literary phenomena. The second
Showalter calls
"Gynocritics" - where the "woman is producer of textual meaning" including "the
psychodynamics of female creativity;
linguistics and the problem of a female language; the trajectory of the individual or collective female literary career and
literary history". The last phase she calls "gender theory" - where the "ideological inscription and the literary effects of the
sex/gender system" are explored."
[27] This model has been criticized by
Toril Moi who sees it as an
essentialist and
deterministic model for female subjectivity. She also criticized it for not taking account of the situation for women outside the west.
[28] From the 1970s onwards; psychoanalytical ideas that has been arising in the field of
French feminism
has gained a decisive influence on feminist theory. Feminist
psychoanalysis deconstructed the phallic hypotheses regarding the
Unconscious.
Julia Kristeva,
Bracha Ettinger and
Luce Irigaray
developed specific notions concerning unconscious sexual difference,
the feminine and motherhood, with wide implications for film and
literature analysis.
[29]
Disciplines
There are a number of distinct feminist disciplines, in which experts
in other areas apply feminist techniques and principles to their own
fields. Additionally, these are also debates which shape feminist theory
and they can be applied interchangeably in the arguments of feminist
theorists.
Bodies
In western thought, the body has been historically associated solely
with women, whereas men have been associated with the mind.
Susan Bordo, a modern feminist philosopher, in her writings elaborates the
dualistic nature of the mind/body connection by examining the early philosophies of
Aristotle,
Hegel and
Descartes, revealing how such distinguishing
binaries
such as spirit/matter and male activity/female passivity have worked to
solidify gender characteristics and categorization. Bordo goes on to
point out that while men have historically been associated with the
intellect and the mind or spirit, women have long been associated with
the body, the subordinated, negatively imbued term in the mind/body
dichotomy.
[30]
The notion of the body (but not the mind) being associated with women
has served as a justification to deem women as property, objects, and
exchangeable commodities (among men). For example, women’s bodies have
been objectified throughout history through the changing ideologies of
fashion, diet, exercise programs, cosmetic surgery, childbearing, etc.
The race and class of women can be a determinate of whether one body
will be treated as decoration and protected which is associated with
middle or upper-class women’s bodies. On the other hand, the other body
is recognized for its use in labor and exploitation which is generally
associated with women’s bodies in the working-class or with women of
color. Second-wave feminist activism has argued for reproductive rights
and choice, women’s health (movement), and lesbian rights (movement)
which are also associated with this Bodies debate.
Epistemologies
The generation and production of knowledge has been an important part
of feminist theory. This debate proposes such questions as “Are there
‘women’s ways of knowing’ and ‘women’s knowledge’?" And “How does the
knowledge women produce about themselves differ from that produced by
patriarchy?” (Bartowski and Kolmar 2005, 45) Feminist theorists have
also proposed the “feminist standpoint knowledge” which attempts to
replace “the view from nowhere” with the model of knowing that expels
the “view from women’s lives”. (Bartowski and Kolmar 2005, 45). A
feminist approach to epistemology seeks to establish knowledge
production from a woman's perspective. It theorizes that from personal
experience comes knowledge which helps each individual look at things
from a different insight.
Central to feminism is that women are systematically subordinated, and bad faith exists when women surrender their
agency
to this subordination, e.g., acceptance of religious beliefs that a man
is the dominant party in a marriage by the will of God; Simone de
Beauvoir labels such women "mutilated" and "
immanent".
Love
A life’s project to be in love may result in bad faith; love is an
example of bad faith given by both Simone de Beauvoir and Jean Paul
Sartre (who were in love with each other).
[35][36][37]
A woman in love may in bad faith allow herself to be subjugated by her
lover, who has created a dependency of the woman on him, allowed by the
woman in bad faith.
[38]
Intersections of Race, Class, and Gender
This debate can also be termed as intersectionality. This debate
raises the issue of understanding the oppressive lives of women that are
not only shaped by gender alone but by other elements such as racism,
classism, ageism, heterosexism, etc. One example of the concept of
intersectionality can be seen through the Mary Ann Weathers’
publication, “An Argument for Black Women’s Liberation as a
Revolutionary Force.”
[39]
Mary Ann Weathers states that “black women, at least the Black women I
have come in contact with in the movement, have been expending all their
energies in “liberating” Black men (if you yourself are not free, how
can you “liberate” someone else?)” Women of color were put in a position
of choosing sides. White women wanted women of color and working-class
women to become a part of the women’s movement over struggling with
their men (working-class, poor, and men of color) against class
oppression and racism in the Civil Rights Movement. This was a conflict
for women of color and working-class women who had to decide whether to
fight against racism or classism versus sexism—or prioritize and
participate in the hierarchy. It did not help that the women’s movement
was shaped primarily by white women during the first and second feminist
waves and the issues surrounding women of color were not addressed.
Contemporary feminist theory addresses such issues of intersectionality
in such publications as “Age, Race, Sex, and Class” by
Kimberlé Williams Crenshaw.
Language
In this debate, women writers have addressed the issues of
masculinized writing through male gendered language that may not serve
to accommodate the literary understanding of women’s lives. Such
masculinized language that feminist theorists address is the use of, for
example, “God the Father” which is looked upon as a way of designating
the sacred as solely men (or, in other words, biblical language
glorifies men through all of the masculine pronouns like “he” and “him”
and addressing God as a “He”). Feminist theorists attempt to reclaim and
redefine women through re-structuring language. For example, feminist
theorists have used the term “womyn” instead of “women." Some feminist
theorists find solace in changing titles of unisex jobs (for example,
police officer versus policeman or mail carrier versus mailman). Some
feminist theorists have reclaimed and redefined such words as “dyke” and
“bitch” and others have invested redefining knowledge into feminist
dictionaries.
Psychology
Feminist psychology,
is a form of psychology centered on societal structures and gender.
Feminist psychology critiques the fact that historically psychological
research has been done from a male perspective with the view that males
are the norm.
[40]
Feminist psychology is oriented on the values and principles of
feminism. It incorporates gender and the ways women are affected by
issues resulting from it.
One major psychological theory,
Relational-Cultural Theory, is based on the work of
Jean Baker Miller, who's book
Toward a New Psychology of Women
proposes that "growth-fostering relationships are a central human
necessity and that disconnections are the source of psychological
problems."
[41]
Inspired by Betty Friedan's Feminine Mystique, and other feminist
classics from the 1960s, Relational-Cultural Theory proposes that
"isolation is one of the most damaging human experiences and is best
treated by reconnecting with other people," and that therapist should
"foster an atmosphere of empathy and acceptance for the patient, even at
the cost of the therapist’s neutrality".
The theory is based on clinical observations and sought to prove that
"there was nothing wrong with women, but rather with the way modern
culture viewed them."
Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalytic feminism is based on
Freud and his
psychoanalytic theories. It maintains that
gender is not biological but is based on the psycho-sexual development of the individual. Psychoanalytical feminists believe that
gender inequality comes from early childhood experiences, which lead men to believe themselves to be
masculine, and women to believe themselves
feminine. It is further maintained that gender leads to a
social system
that is dominated by males, which in turn influences the individual
psycho-sexual development. As a solution it was suggested to avoid the
gender-specific structuring of the society by male-female
coeducation.
[4][5]
In the last 30 years, the contemporary French psychoanalytical theories
concerning the feminine, that refer to sexual difference rather than to
gender, with psychoanalysts like
Julia Kristeva,
[44][44]Maud Mannoni,
Luce Irigaray,
[45][45] and
Bracha Ettinger [46]
has largely influenced not only feminist theory but also the
understanding of the subject in philosophy and the general field of
psychoanalysis itself.
[47][48] Other feminist psychoanalysts whose contribution enriched the field are
Jessica Benjamin[49] and
Jacqueline Rose.
[50]
Literary theory
Feminist literary criticism is
literary criticism informed by feminist theories or politics. Its history has been varied, from classic works of female authors such as
George Eliot,
Virginia Woolf,
[51] and
Margaret Fuller to cutting-edge theoretical work in
women's studies and
gender studies by "
third-wave" authors.
[52]
In the most general, feminist literary criticism before the 1970s was
concerned with the politics of women's authorship and the
representation of women's condition within literature.
[52]
Since the arrival of more complex conceptions of gender and
subjectivity, feminist literary criticism has taken a variety of new
routes. It has considered gender in the terms of
Freudian and
Lacanian psychoanalysis, as part of the
deconstruction of existing power relations.
[52]
Film theory
Feminists have taken many different approaches to the analysis of
cinema. These include discussions of the function of women characters in particular film
narratives or in particular
genres, such as
film noir, where a female character can often be seen to embody a subversive
sexuality that is dangerous to males and is ultimately punished with death.
[citation needed] In considering the way that films are put together, many feminist film critics, such as
Laura Mulvey, have pointed to the "
male gaze" that predominates in classical Hollywood film making. Through the use of various
film techniques, such as
shot reverse shot,
the viewer is led to align themself with the point of view of a male
protagonist. Notably, women function as objects of this gaze far more
often than as proxies for the spectator.
[53][54]
Feminist film theory of the last twenty years is heavily influenced by
the general transformation in the field of aesthetics, including the new
options of articulating the
gaze, offered by psychoanalytical
French feminism.
[55]
Art history
Linda Nochlin[56] and
Griselda Pollock[57][58] are prominent art historians writing on contemporary and modern artists and articulating
Art history
from a feminist perspective since the 1970s. Pollock works with French
psychoanalysis, and in particular with Kristeva's and Ettinger's
theories, to offer new insights into art history and contemporary art
with special regard to questions of trauma and trans-generation memory
in the works of women artists.
History
Feminist history refers to the re-reading and re-interpretation of history from a feminist
perspective. It is not the same as the
history of feminism, which outlines the origins and evolution of the
feminist movement. It also differs from
women's history,
which focuses on the role of women in historical events. The goal of
feminist history is to explore and illuminate the female viewpoint of
history through rediscovery of female writers, artists, philosophers,
etc., in order to recover and demonstrate the significance of women's
voices and choices in the past.
[59][60][61][62][63]
Geography
Feminist geography is often considered part of a broader
postmodern
approach to the subject which is not primarily concerned with the
development of conceptual theory in itself but rather focuses on the
real experiences of individuals and groups in their own localities, upon
the geographies that they live in within their own communities. In
addition to its analysis of the real world, it also critiques existing
geographical and
social studies, arguing that academic traditions are delineated by
patriarchy, and that contemporary studies which do not confront the nature of previous work reinforce the male bias of academic study.
[64][65][66]
Philosophy
The Feminist philosophy refers to a philosophy approached from a
feminist perspective. Feminist philosophy involves attempts to use
methods of philosophy to further the cause of the feminist movements, it
also tries to criticize and/or reevaluate the ideas of traditional
philosophy from within a feminist view. There is no specific school for
feminist philosophy like there has been in regard to other theories.
This means that Feminist philosophers can be found in the analytic and
continental traditions, and the different viewpoints taken on
philosophical issues with those traditions. Feminist philosophers also
have many different viewpoints taken on philosophical issues within
those traditions. Feminist philosophers who are feminists can belong to
many different varieties of feminism. The writings of
Judith Butler,
Rosi Braidotti, and
Donna Haraway are the most significant psychoanalytically informed influences on contemporary feminist philosophy.
Sexology
Feminist sexology is an offshoot of traditional studies of
sexology that focuses on the
intersectionality
of sex and gender in relation to the sexual lives of women. Feminist
sexology shares many principles with the wider field of sexology; in
particular, it does not try to prescribe a certain path or “normality”
for women's sexuality, but only observe and note the different and
varied ways in which women express their sexuality. Looking at sexuality
from a feminist point of view creates connections between the different
aspects of a person's sexual life.
Politics
Feminist political theory is a recently emerging field in
political science
focusing on gender and feminist themes within the state, institutions
and policies. It questions the "modern political theory, dominated by
universalistic liberalist thought, which claims indifference to gender
or other identity differences and has therefore taken its time to open
up to such concerns".
[67]
Economics
Feminist economics broadly refers to a developing branch of
economics
that applies feminist insights and critiques to economics. Research
under this heading is often interdisciplinary, critical, or
heterodox.
It encompasses debates about the relationship between feminism and
economics on many levels: from applying mainstream economic methods to
under-researched "women's" areas, to questioning how
mainstream economics values the reproductive sector, to deeply philosophical critiques of economic
epistemology and methodology.
[68]
One prominent issue that feminist economists investigate is how the
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) does not adequately measure
unpaid labor predominantly performed by women, such as housework, childcare, and eldercare.
[69] Feminist economists have also challenged and exposed the rhetorical approach of mainstream economics.
[70] They have made critiques of many basic assumptions of mainstream economics, including the
Homo economicus model.
[71]
In the Houseworker's Handbook Betsy Warrior presents a cogent argument
that the reproduction and domestic labor of women form the foundation of
economic survival; although, unremunerated and not included in the GDP.
Warrior also notes that the unacknowledged income of men from illegal
activities like arms, drugs and human trafficking, political graft,
religious emollients and various other undisclosed activities provide a
rich revenue stream to men, which further invalidates GDP figures.
Somehow proponents of this theory operate under the assumption that
women don't generate revenue from illegal sources and men provide no
domestic production. They have been instrumental in creating alternative
models, such as the
Capability Approach
and incorporating gender into the analysis of economic data to affect
policy. Marilyn Power suggests that feminist economic methodology can be
broken down into five categories.
[72]
Legal theory
The study of feminist legal theory is a school thought based on the
feminist view that law's treatment of women in relation to men has not
been equal or fair. The goals of feminist legal theory as defined by
leading theorist Claire Dalton, consist of understanding and exploring
the female experience, figuring out if law and institutions oppose
females, and figuring out what changes can be committed to. This is to
be accomplished through studying the connections between the law and
gender as well as applying feminist analysis to concrete areas of law.
See also
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- ^ a b Kristeva, Julia, Toril Moi (Ed.), 'The Kristeva Reader'. NY: Columbia University Press, 1986. ISBN 0-231-06325-3
- ^ a b Irigaray, Luce, 'Key Writings'. London: Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-6940-X
- ^ Ettinger, Bracha, 'The Matrixial Borderspace'. (Essays from 1994-1999), University of Minnesota Press 2006. ISBN 0-8166-3587-0.
- ^ Theory, Culture and Society, Vol. 21 num. 1, 2004. ISSN 0263-2764
- ^ Vanda Zajko and Miriam Leonard (eds.), 'Laughing with Medusa'. Oxford University Press, 2006. 87-117. ISBN 0-19-927438-X
- ^ Jessica Benjamin, The Bonds of Love. London: Virago, 1990.
- ^ "Dora: Fragment of an Analysis" in: In Dora's Case. Edited by Berenheimer and Kahane, London: Virago, 1985.
- ^ Humm, Maggie, Modernist Women and Visual Cultures. Rutgers University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-8135-3266-3
- ^ a b c Barry, Peter, 'Feminist Literary Criticism' in Beginning theory (Manchester University Press: 2002), ISBN 0-7190-6268-3
- ^ Chaudhuri, Shohini, Feminist Film Theorists (Routledge, 2006) ISBN 978-0-415-32433-5
- ^ Mulvey, Laura 'Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema' in Feminism and Film Theory. Ed. Constance Penley (Routledge, 1988)[2]
- ^ Humm, Maggie, Feminism and Film. Indiana University press, 1997. ISBN 0-253-33334-2
- ^ Nochlin,
Linda, ""Why have There Been No Great Women Artists?" Thirty Years
After". In: Armstrong, Carol and de Zegher, Catherine (eds). Women Artists as the Millennium. Cambridge Massachusetts: October Books, MIT Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0-262-01226-3
- ^ Griselda Pollock, Looking Back to the Future. New York: G&B New Arts Press, 2001. ISBN 90-5701-132-8
- ^ Griselda Pollock, Encounters in the Virtual Feminist Museum: Time, Space and the Archive. Routledge, 2007. ISBN 0-415-41374-5
- ^ Cain, William E., ed. Making Feminist History: The Literary Scholarship of Sandra M. Gilbert and Susan Gubar (Garland Publications, 1994)
- ^ Laslitt, Barbara, Ruth-Ellen B. Joeres, Mary Jo Maynes, Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, and Jeanne Barker-Nunn, ed. History and Theory: Feminist Research, Debates, Contestations (University of Chicago Press, 1997)
- ^ Lerner, Gerda, The Majority Finds Its Past: Placing Women in History (Oxford University Press, 1981)
- ^ Pollock, Griselda. Generations and Geographies in the Visual Arts. London: Routledge, 1996. ISBN 0-415-14128-1
- ^ . de Zegher, Catherine and Teicher, Hendel (Eds.) 3 X Abstraction. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-300-10826-5
- ^ Rose, Gillian, Feminism and Geography: The Limits of Geographical Knowledge (Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1993)
- ^ Moss, Pamela, Feminisms in Geography: Rethinking Space, Place, and Knowledges (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2007) ISBN 978-0-7425-3829-0
- ^ Welchman, John C., Rethinking Borders. Macmillan, 1996 ISBN 0-333-56580-0
- ^ Véronique Mottier, Feminist analyses of the state, Feminist political theory, University of Essex. Retrieved on 1-10-2010
- ^ Barker, Drucilla K. and Edith Kuiper, eds. 2003. Toward a Feminist Philosophy of Economics. London and New York: Routledge.
- ^ Waring, Marilyn, If Women Counted: A New Feminist Economics,San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988.
- ^ Nelson, Julie A., "Gender, Metaphor, and the Definition of Economics," Economics and Philosophy 8(1), 1992; McCloskey, D. N. "Some Consequences of a Conjective Economics" in Beyond Economic Man: Feminist Theory and Economics, ed. J.A. Nelson and M.A. Ferber, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993. See also McCloskey critique.
- ^ Marianne A. Ferber and Julie A. Nelson, Beyond Economic Man: Feminist Theory and Economics, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993. Marianne A. Ferber and Julie A. Nelson, Feminist Economics Today: Beyond Economic Man, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003.
- ^ Power, Marilyn. "Social Provisioning as a Starting Point for Feminist Economics" Feminist Economics. Volume 10, Number 3. Routledge, November 2004.
- ^ Dalton, Claire, 'Where We Stand: Observations on the Situation of Feminist Legal Thought' in Feminist Legal Theory: Foundations ed. by D. Kelly Weisberg (Temple University Press, 1993), ISBN 978-1-56639-028-6
- ^ Dalton, Claire, 'Deconstructing Contract Doctrine' in Feminist Legal Theory: Readings in Law and Gender ed. by Katharine T. Bartlett and Rosanne Kennedy (Harper Collins, 1992)
- ^ Feminist Legal Theory: Readings in Law and Gender ed. by Katharine T. Bartlett and Rosanne Kennedy (Harper Collins, 1992), ISBN 978-0-8133-1248-4
See also
References
- ^ Barry, Peter, 'Feminist Literary Criticism' in Beginning theory (Manchester University Press: 2002), ISBN 0-7190-6268-3
- ^ Tuttle, Lisa: Encyclopedia of feminism. Harlow: Longman 1986, p. 184
now present what we have study and produce the seminar presentations!
hugs,
Mário Eduardo:}
